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ASML or Advanced Semiconductor Materials Lithography, a Netherlands-based multinational corporation, is perhaps the most important tech company in human history. Practically unheard of outside of the corridors of the semiconductor industry, this company has built a machine — dubbed the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) lithography system — which has made the development of modern microchips possible. Without it, the world would not see modern-day smartphones such as the iPhone 16 series and the Samsung Galaxy S25 series, Nvidia’s powerful GPUs, or the advanced artificial intelligence (AI) models.
Five Things You Should Know About ASML, the Most Critical Pillar of the Global Chip Supply Chain
Overview of ASML
Founded in 1984 as a joint venture between Philips and ASM International, ASML started small in the lithography space. For the unaware, lithography is the process of using light to “print” microscopic patterns onto silicon wafers, which eventually become the chips that power everything from smartphones and laptops to data centres, AI processors, and fighter jets.
However, as the world was moving towards smaller computers, ASML began researching ways to print transistors that were much smaller in size. In 1997, it first shifted its focus towards EUV as an alternative to traditional lithography machines, which used deep ultraviolet (DUV) light. EUV has a much smaller wavelength (roughly 13.5nm) compared to DUV, whose wavelength is around 193nm.
Advantages of EUV Lithography Machines
EUV comes with its set of benefits. The technology allows machines to fit more transistors into the same space, allowing for tighter spacing, higher performance, improved power consumption, and smaller features. The technology also eliminated the need to use multi-patterning, which tends to be more error-prone and expensive.
However, creating EUV-based lithography machines is not easy. In fact, it is so difficult and expensive that it took ASML more than two decades of effort, multiple partnerships with companies working in the semiconductor space, and billions of Euros to build the first such system.
Technology Behind ASML’s EUV Lithography Machines
To understand the complexities in building EUV lithography machines, it is important to know the technology. As per IBM Research, EUV light is generated by shooting a high-power laser at droplets of tin roughly 50,000 times per second. Once the laser hits, tin becomes plasma, and this plasma emits extreme ultraviolet light of 13.5nm wavelength.
This particular light is said to be so dim that it can be absorbed by air or glass. This means the light has to travel in a vacuum using mirrors instead of lenses (as lenses are glass that can absorb the light). ASML partnered with Zeiss to create curved mirrors that were ultra-precise and had atomic-level smoothness to focus the light onto the silicon wafers correctly. Even a spec of dust can completely throw off the patterning process. The light was then used to etch the patterns in the microchips, which would act as transistors.
ASML’s achievement was not a solo effort, however. The company was backed by the Dutch government and spent nearly EUR 10 billion over more than 20 years to develop its first EUV lithography technology. Apart from partnering with Zeiss, ASML partnered with US-based Cymer (now part of ASML) for the light source, and Germany-based Trumf for laser amplifiers. In total, the machine has 100,000 parts and is roughly the size of an average bus.
Why ASML Is Important
Due to these difficulties, even the world’s biggest semiconductor companies, such as Intel and TSMC refrained from developing their own EUV lithography machines and instead supply them via ASML. Not only that, but both Intel and TSMC, alongside Samsung, have also invested in the company to help it accelerate the research and build more advanced machines.
Today, ASML claims the title of the only company in the world which manufactures EUV lithography machines. It sells these machines for EUR 350 million (roughly Rs. 3,480 crore) a piece to companies such as Intel, TSMC, Samsung, and other chipmakers. Notably, both Canon and Nikon do manufacture DUV-based lithography machines, but they have not attempted to shift to EUV. This means if anyone in this world wants to fabricate chipsets with transistors below 7nm, they will have to purchase the machines from ASML.
Technology That Caused Political Conflict
Due to its unique position, ASML has also been caught in the crossfire of the political cold war between the US and China. In 2020, US officials pressurised the Dutch government to refuse ASML’s export licence for an EUV machine for a Chinese company. As a result, the unit was never shipped to China, and to date, the Netherlands does not allow export of the machine to any Chinese buyer.
The escalation also led to China publicly condemning the Dutch export policies, calling it “unilateral bullying” and technological suppression. The country has also started domestic development of the technology; however, there are no reports of success so far.
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